Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit

B-2 Spirit
A USAF B-2 Spirit in flight
Role Stealth bomber
National origin United States
Manufacturer Northrop Corporation
Northrop Grumman
First flight 17 July 1989
Introduction April 1997
Status Active service: 20 aircraft
Primary user United States Air Force
Number built 21[1][2]
Program cost US$44.75 billion (projected through 2004)[3]
Unit cost $737 million (1997 cost for each aircraft only)[3]

The Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit (also known as the Stealth Bomber) is an American heavy bomber with "low observable" stealth technology designed to penetrate dense anti-aircraft defenses and deploy both conventional and nuclear weapons. Because of its considerable capital and operational costs, the project was controversial in Congress and among the Joint Chiefs of Staff. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Congress slashed initial plans to purchase 132 bombers to just 21.

The cost of each aircraft averaged US$737 million in 1997 dollars.[3] Total procurement costs averaged US$929 million per aircraft, which includes spare parts, equipment, retrofitting, and software support.[3] The total program cost, which includes development, engineering and testing, averaged US$2.1 billion per aircraft (in 1997 dollars).[3]

Twenty B-2s are operated by the United States Air Force. Though originally designed in the 1980s for Cold War operations scenarios, B-2s were first used in combat to drop bombs on Serbia during the Kosovo War in 1999, and saw continued use during the ongoing wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.[4] One aircraft was lost in 2008 when it crashed just after takeoff; the crew ejected safely.[5]

The bomber has a crew of two and can drop up to 80 x 500 lb (230 kg)-class JDAM GPS-guided bombs, or 16 x 2,400 lb (1,100 kg) B83 nuclear bombs in a single pass through extremely dense anti-aircraft defenses. The B-2 is the only aircraft that can carry large air to surface standoff weapons in a stealth configuration. The program has been the subject of espionage and counter-espionage activity and the B-2 has provided prominent public spectacles at air shows since the 1990s.

Contents

Development

ATB project

The B-2 Spirit originated from the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) black project that began in 1979.[6] The Cold War was well underway, and on the campaign trail in 1979 and 1980, candidate Ronald Reagan promised a restoration of American military strength. On 22 August 1980, the incumbent Carter administration publicly disclosed that the Department of Defense was working to develop stealth aircraft including the ATB.[7] In 2007, it was revealed publicly that MIT scientists helped assess the mission effectiveness of the aircraft under classified contract during the 1980s.[8]

After the evaluations of the companies' proposals, the ATB competition was reduced to the Northrop/Boeing and Lockheed/Rockwell teams with each receiving a study contract for further work.[6] Both teams used flying wing designs. The Northrop design was larger while the Lockheed design was smaller and included a small tail.[9] The black project was funded under the code name "Aurora".[9] The Northrop/Boeing team's ATB design was selected over the Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981.[6][10]

First public display of B-2
The B-2's first public display in 1988
B-2 in flight
The B-2's first public flight in 1989

The Northrop design received the designation B-2 and the name "Spirit". The bomber's design was changed in the mid-1980s when the mission profile was changed from high-altitude to low-altitude, terrain-following. The redesign delayed the B-2's first flight by two years and added about US$1 billion to the program's cost.[7] An estimated US$23 billion was secretly spent for research and development on the B-2 by 1989.[11] At the program's peak, approximately 13,000 people were employed at a dedicated plant in Pico Rivera, California for the aircraft's engineering and portions of its manufacturing.[12]

The B-2 was first publicly displayed on 22 November 1988, at Air Force Plant 42, Palmdale, California, where it was assembled. This initial viewing was heavily guarded and guests were not allowed to see the rear of the B-2. Its first public flight was on 17 July 1989 from Palmdale.[13]

Procurement

A procurement of 132 aircraft was planned in the mid-1980s, but was later reduced to 75.[14] By the early 1990s, the Soviet Union had disintegrated, which effectively rendered void the Spirit's primary Cold War mission. In light of budgetary pressures and congressional opposition, in his 1992 State of the Union Address, President George H.W. Bush announced B-2 production would be limited to a total of 20 aircraft.[15] In 1996, however, the Clinton administration, though originally committed to ending production of the bombers once the 20th aircraft was completed, authorized the conversion of a 21st bomber, a prototype test model, to Block 30 full operational status at a cost of nearly $500 million.[16]

In 1995 Northrop made a proposal to the USAF to build 20 additional aircraft with a flyaway cost of $566M each.[17]

Espionage

In 1984 a Northrop employee, Thomas Cavanaugh, was arrested for trying to sell classified information to the Soviet Union, which apparently was smuggled out of the Pico Rivera, California factory.[18] Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released under parole in 2001.

Noshir Gowadia, a design engineer who worked on the B-2's propulsion system, was arrested in October 2005 for selling B-2 related classified information to foreign countries. His trial was initially scheduled for 12 February 2008, but he received a continuance.[19][20]

Program costs

In a 1994 live fire exercise near Point Mugu, California, a B-2 drops forty-seven 500 lb (230 kg) class Mark 82 bombs, which is more than half of a B-2's total ordnance payload

The program was the subject of public controversy for its costs to American taxpayers. In 1996 the General Accounting Office disclosed that the USAF's B-2 bombers "will be, by far, the most costly bombers to operate on a per aircraft basis", costing over three times as much as the B-1B (US$9.6 million annually) and over four times as much as the B-52H ($US6.8 million annually). In September 1997, each hour of B-2 flight necessitated 119 hours of maintenance in turn. Comparable maintenance needs for the B-52 and the B-1B are 53 and 60 hours respectively for each hour of flight. A key reason for this cost is the provision of air-conditioned hangars large enough for the bomber's 172 ft (52.4 m) wingspan, which are needed to maintain the aircraft's stealthy properties, especially its "low-observable" stealthy skins.[21][22] Maintenance costs are about $3.4 million a month for each aircraft.[23]

The total "military construction" cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars. The cost to procure each B-2 was US$737 million in 1997 dollars, based only on a fleet cost of US$15.48 billion.[3] The procurement cost per aircraft as detailed in General Accounting Office (GAO) reports, which include spare parts and software support, was $929 million per aircraft in 1997 dollars.[3]

The total program cost projected through 2004 was US$44.75 billion in 1997 dollars. This includes development, procurement, facilities, construction, and spare parts. The total program cost averaged US$2.13 billion per aircraft.[3]

Opposition

In its consideration of the fiscal year 1990 defense budget, the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800 million from the B-2 research and development budget, while at the same time staving off a motion to kill the bomber. Opposition in committee and in Congress more largely was broad and bipartisan, with Congressmen Ron Dellums (D-CA), John Kasich (R-OH), and John G. Rowland (R-CT) authorizing the motion to kill the bomber and others in the Senate such as Jim Exon (D-NE) and John McCain (R-AZ) also opposing the project.[24]

The growing cost of the B-2 program, and evidence of flaws in the aircraft's ability to elude detection by radar,[24] were among factors which drove opposition. At the peak production period specified in 1989, the schedule called for spending US$7 billion to $8 billion per year in 1989 dollars, something Committee Chair Les Aspin (D-WI) said "won't fly financially."[25]

In 1990, the US Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the flight control system. Efforts have also been made to reduce the probability of bird ingestion, which could damage engine fan blades.[26]

In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, to include former Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry who cast votes against the B-2 Stealth Bomber in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a United States Senator representing Massachusetts. By 1992, Republican President George H.W. Bush called for the cancellation of the B-2 and promised to cut military spending by 30% in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union.[27]

In May 1995, on the basis of its 1995 Heavy Bomber Force Study, the DOD determined that additional B-2 procurements would exacerbate efforts to develop and implement long term recapitalization plans for the USAF bomber force.

In October 1995, former Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General Mike Ryan, and Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General John Shalikashvili, strongly recommended against Congressional action to fund the purchase of any additional B-2s, arguing that to do so would require unacceptable cuts in existing conventional and nuclear-capable aircraft to pay for the new bombers,[28] and because the military had much higher priorities on which to spend its limited procurement dollars.[29]

Some B-2 advocates argued that procuring twenty additional B-2s would save money because B-2s would be able to deeply penetrate anti-aircraft defenses and use low-cost, short-range attack weapons rather than expensive standoff weapons. However, in 1995, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), and its Director of National Security Analysis, found that additional B-2s would reduce the cost of weapons expended by the bomber force by less than US$2 billion in 1995 dollars during the first two weeks of a conflict, which is when the Air Force envisions bombers would make their greatest contribution. This is a small fraction of the US$26.8 billion (in 1995 dollars) life cycle cost that the CBO projected an additional 20 B-2s would cost.[30]

In 1997, as Ranking Member of the House Armed Services Committee and National Security Committee, Congressman Ron Dellums, a long-time opponent of the bomber, cited five independent studies and offered an amendment to that year's defense authorization bill to cap production of the bombers with the existing 21 aircraft. The amendment was narrowly defeated.[31] Nonetheless, Congress has never approved funding for the purchase of any additional B-2 bombers to date.

Upgrades

In 2008, the US Congress funded upgrades to the B-2s weapon control systems for hitting moving targets.[32]

On 29 December 2008, Air Force officials awarded a production contract to Northrop Grumman to modernize the B-2 fleet's radar. The contract provides advanced state-of-the-art radar components, with the aim of sustained operational viability of the B-2 fleet into the future. The contract has a target value of approximately US$468 million.[33] The award follows successful flight testing with the upgraded equipment. A modification to the radar was needed since the U.S. Department of Commerce required the B-2 to use a different radar frequency.[34] It was reported on 22 July 2009 that the B-2 had passed the second of the two USAF audit milestones associated with this upgraded AESA radar capability.[35]

On 28 April 2009, an Air Force/contractor team verified that the 30,000 pound Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP) would fit in the B-2's bomb bay.[36]

Design

The B-2's engines are buried within its wing to conceal the induction fans and minimize their exhaust signature. The crew of two sit side-by-side in the cockpit.

The B-2's low-observable, or "stealth", characteristics give it the ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated anti-aircraft defenses to attack its most heavily defended targets. The bomber's stealth comes from a combination of reduced acoustic, infrared, visual and radar signatures, making it difficult for opposition defenses to detect, track and engage the aircraft. Many specific aspects of the low-observability process remain classified. The B-2's composite materials, special coatings and flying wing design, which reduces the number of leading edges, contribute to its stealth characteristics.[37] The Spirit has a radar signature of about 0.1 m2.[38] Each B-2 requires a climate-controlled hangar large enough for its 172-foot (52 m) wingspan to protect the operational integrity of its sophisticated radar absorbent material and coatings.[39] The engines are buried within the wing to conceal the induction fans and hide their exhaust.[40]

The blending of low-observable technologies with high aerodynamic efficiency and large payload gives the B-2 significant advantages over previous bombers. The U.S. Air Force reports its range as approximately 6,000 nautical miles (6,900 mi; 11,000 km).[4][41] Also, its low-observation ability provides the B-2 greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus increasing its range and providing a better field of view for the aircraft's sensors. It combines GPS Aided Targeting System (GATS) with GPS-aided bombs such as Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). This uses its passive electronically scanned array APQ-181 radar to correct GPS errors of targets and gain much better than laser-guided weapon accuracy when "dumb" gravity bombs are equipped with a GPS-aided "smart" guidance tail kit. It can bomb 16 targets in a single pass when equipped with 1,000 or 2,000-pound (450 kg or 900 kg) bombs, or as many as 80 when carrying 500 lb (230 kg) bombs.

Vice President Dick Cheney sits inside the cockpit of a B-2 with pilot Capt. Luke Jayne during a visit to Whiteman AFB in 2006.

The B-2 has a crew of two: a pilot in the left seat, and mission commander in the right.[4] The B-2 has provisions for a third crew member if needed.[42] For comparison, the B-1B has a crew of four and the B-52 has a crew of five.[4] B-2 crews have been used to pioneer sleep cycle research to improve crew performance on long sorties. The B-2 is highly automated, and, unlike two-seat fighters, one crew member can sleep, use a toilet or prepare a hot meal while the other monitors the aircraft.[43]

As with the B-52 Stratofortress and B-1 Lancer, the B-2 provides the versatility inherent in manned bombers. Like other bombers, its assigned targets can be canceled or changed while in flight, the particular weapon assigned to a target can be changed, and the timing of attack, or the route to the target can be changed while in flight.

A B-2 during aerial refueling which extends its range past 6,000 miles to support intercontinental sorties.

The prime contractor, responsible for overall system design, integration and support, is Northrop Grumman. Boeing, Raytheon (formerly Hughes Aircraft), G.E. and Vought Aircraft Industries, are subcontractors.

The original B-2 design had tanks for a contrail-inhibiting chemical, but this was replaced in the final design with a contrail sensor from Ophir that alerts the pilot when he should change altitude[44] and mission planning also considers altitudes where the probability of contrail formation is minimized.

Operational history

The first operational aircraft, christened Spirit of Missouri, was delivered to Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, where the fleet is based, on 17 December 1993.[45] The B-2 reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 1 January 1997.[46] Depot maintenance for the B-2 is accomplished by U.S. Air Force contractor support and managed at Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center at Tinker Air Force Base.[4] Originally designed to deliver nuclear weapons, modern usage has shifted towards a flexible role with conventional and nuclear capability.

Into combat

An Air Force maintenance crew services a B-2 at Andersen AFB, Guam, 2004

The B-2 has seen service in three campaigns. Its combat debut was during the Kosovo War in 1999. It was responsible for destroying 33% of selected Serbian bombing targets in the first eight weeks of U.S. involvement in the War.[4] During this war, B-2s flew non-stop to Kosovo from their home base in Missouri and back.[4] The B-2 was the first aircraft to deploy GPS satellite guided JDAM "smart bombs" in combat use in Kosovo.[47]

The B-2 has been used to drop bombs on Afghanistan in support of the ongoing War in Afghanistan. With the support of aerial refueling, the B-2 flew one of its longest missions to date from Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri to Afghanistan and back.[4]

During the ongoing War in Iraq, B-2s have operated from Diego Garcia and an undisclosed "forward operating location". Other sorties in Iraq have launched from Whiteman AFB.[4] This resulted in missions lasting over 30 hours and one mission of over 50 hours. The designated "forward operating locations" have been previously designated as Guam and RAF Fairford, where new climate controlled hangars have been constructed. B-2s have conducted 27 sorties from Whiteman AFB and 22 sorties from a forward operating location, releasing more than 1.5 million pounds of munitions,[4] including 583 JDAM "smart bombs" in 2003.[48]

The B-2's combat use preceded a U.S. Air Force declaration of "full operational capability" in December 2003.[4] The Pentagon's Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report noted that the B-2's serviceability for Fiscal Year 2003 was still inadequate, mainly due to the maintainability of the B-2's low observable coatings. The evaluation also noted that the Defensive Avionics suite also had shortcomings with pop-up threats.[4]

All B-2s, nuclear-capable B-52s, and nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles have shifted to the new nuclear-focused Air Force Global Strike Command scheduled to be set up by September 2009.[49][50]

Operators

The "Spirit of Indiana" sits on the ramp at Andersen AFB in Guam on 23 June 2006

B-2s are operated exclusively by the United States Air Force active units.

Accident

The crashed B-2

On 23 February 2008, a B-2 crashed on the runway shortly after takeoff from Andersen Air Force Base in Guam.[52] The Spirit of Kansas, 89-0127 had been operated by the 393rd Bomb Squadron, 509th Bomb Wing, Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, and had logged 5,176 flight hours. It was the first crash of a B-2. The two person crew ejected from the aircraft and survived the crash. The aircraft was completely destroyed, a hull loss valued at US$1.4 billion.[53][54] After the accident, the Air Force took the B-2 fleet off operational status until clearing the fleet for flight status 53 days later on 15 April 2008.[55]

Aircraft on display

Mockup of a B-2 Spirit on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force

Because of its high cost, strategic bombing role, and the still-classified aspects of its low observable coatings, no production B-2 has been placed on permanent display. However, B-2s have made periodic appearances on ground display at various air shows.

In 2004, one of the test articles (s/n AT-1000) built without engines or instruments for static testing was placed on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio.[56] The test article passed all structural testing.[57] The Museum's restoration team spent over a year reassembling the fractured airframe.

From 1989 to 2004, the South Dakota Air and Space Museum located on the grounds of Ellsworth Air Force Base displayed the 10-short-ton (9-metric-ton) "Honda Stealth", a 60% scale mockup of a stealthy bomber which had been built by North American Honda in 1988 for an advertising campaign.[58] Although not an actual replica of a B-2, the mock-up was close enough to the B-2's design to arouse suspicion that Honda had intercepted classified, top secret information, as the B-2 project was still officially classified in 1988. Honda donated the model to the museum in 1989, on condition that the model be destroyed if it was ever replaced with a different aircraft. In 2005, when the museum received a B-1 Lancer for display (Ellsworth being a B-1 base), the museum destroyed the mock-up.[59][60]

Specifications (B-2A Block 30)

Orthographically projected diagram of the B-2 Spirit

Data from USAF Fact Sheet,[4] Pace,[61] Spick,[41] Globalsecurity[62]

General characteristics

Performance

Armament

Later avionics and equipment improvements allow B-2A to carry JSOW, GBU-28, and GBU-57A/Bs as well. The Spirit is also designated as a delivery aircraft for the AGM-158 JASSM when the missile enters service.

List of B-2 bombers

Side view of a B-2 Spirit
B-2 in flight over the Mississippi River (St. Louis, Missouri) with the Gateway Arch and Busch Stadium in the background
B-2 from below
Air Vehicle No. Block No.[63] USAF s/n Formal name Status
AV-1 Test/30 82-1066 Spirit of America 14 July 2000 — Active[64]
AV-2 Test/30 82-1067 Spirit of Arizona 4 December 1997 — Active
AV-3 Test/30 82-1068 Spirit of New York 10 October 1997 — Active, Flight Test
AV-4 Test/30 82-1069 Spirit of Indiana 22 May 1999 — Active
AV-5 Test/20 82-1070 Spirit of Ohio 18 July 1997 — Active
AV-6 Test/30 82-1071 Spirit of Mississippi 23 May 1997 — Active
AV-7 10 88-0328 Spirit of Texas 21 August 1994 — Active
AV-8 10 88-0329 Spirit of Missouri 31 March 1994 — Active
AV-9 10 88-0330 Spirit of California 17 August 1994 — Active
AV-10 10 88-0331 Spirit of South Carolina 30 December 1994 — Active
AV-11 10 88-0332 Spirit of Washington 29 October 1994 — Active
AV-12 10 89-0127 Spirit of Kansas 17 February 1995 — 23 February 2008, Crashed[52]
AV-13 10 89-0128 Spirit of Nebraska 28 June 1995 — Active
AV-14 10 89-0129 Spirit of Georgia 14 November 1995 — Active
AV-15 10 90-0040 Spirit of Alaska 24 January 1996 — Active
AV-16 10 90-0041 Spirit of Hawaii 10 January 1996 — Active
AV-17 20 92-0700 Spirit of Florida 3 July 1996 — Active
AV-18 20 93-1085 Spirit of Oklahoma 15 May 1996 — Active
AV-19 20 93-1086 Spirit of Kitty Hawk 30 August 1996 — Active
AV-20 30 93-1087 Spirit of Pennsylvania 5 August 1997 — Active
AV-21 30 93-1088 Spirit of Louisiana 10 November 1997 — Active
AV-22 through AV-165 Canceled

Sources: FAS.org,[65] B-2 Spirit (Pace)[66]

See also

Related lists

References

Notes
  1. ↑ "Northrop B-2A Spirit fact sheet." National Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  2. ↑ Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor. "2009 USAF Almanac, Fact and Figures." Air Force Magazine, May 2009. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 "B-2 Bomber: Cost and Operational Issues Letter Report, 08/14/97, GAO/NSIAD-97-181." United States General Accounting Office (GAO). Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 "B-2 Spirit Fact Sheet." U.S. Air Force, April 2008. Retrieved: 6 July 2008.
  5. ↑ Rolfsen, Bruce. "Moisture confused sensors in B-2 crash." airforcetimes.com, 9 June 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Pace 1999, pp. 20–27.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Goodall 1992
  8. ↑ Griffin, John M. and James E. Kinnu. "B-2 System Engineering Case Study". Air Force Center for Systems Engineering, 31 May 2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Rich, Ben, Leo Janos. Skunk Works. Little, Brown & Company, 1994. ISBN 0-316-74300-3.
  10. ↑ Spick 2000, p. 339.
  11. ↑ Van Voorst, Bruce. "The Stealth Takes Wing." Time, 31 July 1989. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  12. ↑ "Pico Rivera." GlobalSecurity.org, 26 April 2005. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  13. ↑ Pace 1999, pp. 29–36.
  14. ↑ Pace 1999, pp. 75–76.
  15. ↑ "President George H. Bush's State of the Union Address." c-span.org, 28 January 1992. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  16. ↑ Graham, Bradley. "US to add one B-2 plane to 20 plane fleet." Washington Post, 22 March 1996, p. A20.
  17. ↑ Eden 2004, pp. 350–353.
  18. ↑ AP. "Stealth bomber classified documents missing." New York Times, 24 June 1987. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  19. ↑ FBI Honolulu Press Release
  20. ↑ "Gowadia case." cicentre.com. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  21. ↑ Capaccio, Tony. "The B-2's Stealthy Skins Need Tender, Lengthy Care." Defense Week, 27 May 1997, p. 1.
  22. ↑ "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192." US General Accounting Office, September 1996, pp. 53, 56. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  23. ↑ http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htairfo/articles/20100614.aspx
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Schmitt, Eric. "Key Senate Backer of Stealth Bomber Sees It in Jeopardy." nytimes.com, New York Times, 14 September 1991. Retrieved: 23 July 2009.
  25. ↑ Sorenson 1995, p. 168.
  26. ↑ "Moisture in sensors led to stealth bomber crash, Air Force report says." Kansas City Star, 5 June 2008.
  27. ↑ "Zell Miller's Attack on Kerry: A Little Out Of Date." FactCheck.org, 4 October 2004. Retrieved: 26 October 2004.
  28. ↑ Bender,Brian and John Robinson. "More Stealth Bombers Mean Less Combat Power". Defense Daily, 5 August 1997, p. 206.
  29. ↑ "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192". US General Accounting Office, September 1996, p. 70. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  30. ↑ "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192". US General Accounting Office, September 1996, p. 72. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  31. ↑ "Debate on Dellums Amendment to 1998 Defense Authorization Act", 23 June 1997.
  32. ↑ McKinney, Brooks. "Northrop Grumman Adding Mobile Targets to B-2 Bomber Capabilities." Northrop Grumman, 7 February 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  33. ↑ "B-2 radar modernization program contract awarded." US Air Force, 30 December 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  34. ↑ Warwick, Graham. "USAF Awards B-2 Radar Upgrade Production." Aviation Week, 30 December 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  35. ↑ Jennings, Gareth. "B-2 passes modernisation milestones." janes.com, 24 July 2009. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  36. ↑ Mayer, Daryl. Northrop Grumman and USAF Verify Proper Fit of 30,000lb Penetrator Weapon on B-2 Bomber defpro.com, 22 July 2009. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  37. ↑ "B-2." Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  38. ↑ Richardson, Doug (2001). Stealth Warplanes. Pilot Press. Salamander Books Ltd. p. 57. ISBN 0-7603-1051-3. 
  39. ↑ Fulghum, D.A. "First F-22 large-scale, air combat exercise wins praise and triggers surprise" (online title), "Away Game". Aviation Week & Space Technology, 8 January 2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  40. ↑ "B-2." Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Spick 2000, pp. 340–341.
  42. ↑ "B-2 Spirit page." Northrop Grumman. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  43. ↑ Tirpak, John A. "With the First B-2 Squadron." Air Force Magazine: Journal of the Air Force Association, Vol. 79, No. 4, April 1996.
  44. ↑ Gosnell, Mariana. : "Why contrails hang around." Air & Space magazine, 1 July 2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  45. ↑ Pace 1999, p. 66.
  46. ↑ Pace 1999, p. 73.
  47. ↑ "JDAM continues to be warfighter's weapon of choice." US Air Force, 17 March 2006. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  48. ↑ "Air Force programs: B-2.". Project On Government Oversight (POGO), 16 April 2004. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  49. ↑ "US plans separate nuclear command." BBC News, 25 October 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  50. ↑ Chavanne, Bettina H. "USAF Creates Global Strike Command." Aviation Week, 24 October 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  51. ↑ "131st Bomb Wing." 131bw.ang.af.mil. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 "B-2 Crashes on Takeoff From Guam." Aviation Week, 23 February 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  53. ↑ "Air Force: Sensor moisture caused 1st B-2 crash." USA Today, 5 June 2008. Retrieved: 16 February 2009.
  54. ↑ "B-2 crash video." Youtube.com. Retrieved: 23 July 2009.
  55. ↑ [1]. US Air Force
  56. ↑ The display airframe and nose wheel door was marked to resemble The Spirit of Ohio, to include its Fire and Ice insignias.
  57. ↑ "National Museum of the USAF B-2 fact page."
  58. ↑ "Honda Stealth"
  59. ↑ Museum slices stealth display
  60. ↑ "B-1 to go on display in museum."
  61. ↑ Pace 1999, Appendix A.
  62. ↑ "B-2 specifications." GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved: 16 June 2010.
  63. ↑ All 21 copies brought to Block 30 standard.
  64. ↑ "Air Force names final B-2 bomber 'Spirit of America'." fas.org, 14 July 200. Retrieved: 16 June 2010.
  65. ↑ "B-2." fas.org. Retrieved: 16 June 2010.
  66. ↑ Pace 1999, Appendix.
Bibliography
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  • Eden, Paul. "Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit". Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. New York: Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1-90468-784-9.
  • Goodall, James C. "The Northrop B-2A Stealth Bomber." America's Stealth Fighters and Bombers: B-2, F-117, YF-22, and YF-23. St. Paul, MN: MBI Publishing Company, 1992. ISBN 0-87938-609-6.
  • Pace, Steve. B-2 Spirit: The Most Capable War Machine on the Planet. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 0-07-134433-0.
  • Richardson, Doug. Northrop B-2 Spirit (Classic Warplanes). New York: Smithmark Publishers Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-8317-1404-2.
  • Sorenson, David, S. The Politics of Strategic Aircraft Modernization. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995 ISBN 978-0275952587.
  • Spick, Mike. "B-2 Spirit", The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4.
  • Winchester, Jim, ed. "Northrop B-2 Spirit". Modern Military Aircraft (Aviation Factfile). Rochester, Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2004. ISBN 1-84013-640-5.
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'N' series

Note: Northrop company designations include a wide variety of technologies. Only aircraft, aero engines, and missiles are linked here.
N-1 · N-2 · N-3 · N-4 · N-5 · N-6 · N-7 · N-8 · N-9 · N-10 · N-12 · N-14 · N-15 · N-16 · N-18 · N-19 · N-20 · N-21 · N-23 · N-24 · N-25 · N-26 · N-29 · N-31 · N-32 · N-34 · N-35 · N-36 · N-37 · N-38 · N-39 · N-40 · N-41 · N-46 · N-47 · N-48 · N-49 · N-50 · N-51 · N-52 · N-54 · N-55 · N-59 · N-60 · N-63 · N-65 · N-67 · N-68 · N-69 · N-71 · N-72 · N-73 · N-74 · N-77 · N-81 · N-82 · N-94 · N-96 · N-102 · N-103 · N-105 · N-110 · N-111 · N-112 · N-117 · N-124 · N-132 · N-133 · N-134 · N-135 · N-138 · N-141 · N-144 · N-149 · N-150 · N-151 · N-155 · N-156 · N-205 · N-267 · N-285 · N-300
'P' series

P530 · P600 · P610
By role
Attack

YA-13 · XA-16 · A-17 · SBT · YA-9
Bombers

YB-35 · YB-49 · B-62 · BT · B2T · B-2
Drones
Q-4
Fighters

XP-56 · P-61 · XP-79 · F-89 · XFT · F2T · F-5 · YF-17 · F-18L · F-20 · YF-23 · CF-5/CF-116
Reconnaissance

F-15 · RF-61 · RF-5
Trainers
Transports

Alpha · Beta · Gamma · Delta · C-19 · C-100 · YC-125 · RT
Experimental

N-1M · N-9M · M2-F2 · M2-F3 · HL-10 · Tacit Blue · X-4 · X-21
Names

Bantam · Black Bullet · Black Widow · Chukar · Nomad · Pioneer · Raider · Reporter · Scorpion · Snark · Talon · Tigershark
See also: TR-3
Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC)
Bases
Barksdale • F. E. Warren • Malmstrom • Minot • Whiteman
Units
Air Forces
Eighth Air Force  • Twentieth Air Force
Wings
Bomb
2d Bomb • 5th Bomb • 509th Bomb
Missile
90th Missile • 91st Missile • 341st Missile
Squadrons
Bomb
11th Bomb  • 13th Bomb  • 20th Bomb  • 23d Bomb  • 69th Bomb  • 93d Bomb  • 96th Bomb  • 343d Bomb  • 393d Bomb
Flight test
576th Flight Test Squadron
Missile
10th Missile  • 12th Missile  • 319th Missile  • 320th Missile  • 321st Missile  • 490th Missile  • 740th Missile  • 741st Missile  • 742d Missile
Strategic Operations ‎
625th Strategic Operations Squadron
Weapon
systems
Bombers
B-2 Spirit  • B-52 Stratofortress
Helicopters
UH-1N Iroquois
Missiles
Leadership
Kowalski  • Klotz
United States tri-service bomber designations post-1962

B-1  • B-2
See also: FB-22  • Next-Generation Bomber  • 2037 Bomber
Lists relating to aviation
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